Sejarah Uang Indonesia

Masa Awal Kemerdekaan

Keadaan ekonomi di Indonesia pada awal kemerdekaan ditandai dengan hiperinflasi akibat peredaran beberapa mata uang yang tidak terkendali, sementara Pemerintah RI belum memiliki mata uang. Ada tiga mata uang yang dinyatakan berlaku oleh pemerintah RI pada tanggal 1 Oktober 1945, yaitu mata uang Jepang, mata uang Hindia Belanda, dan mata uang De Javasche Bank.

Diantara ketiga mata uang tersebut yang nilai tukarnya mengalami penurunan tajam adalah mata uang Jepang. Peredarannya mencapai empat milyar sehingga mata uang Jepang tersebut menjadi sumber hiperinflasi. Lapisan masyarakat yang paling menderita adalah petani, karena merekalah yang paling banyak menyimpan mata uang Jepang.

Kekacauan ekonomi akibat hiperinflasi diperparah oleh kebijakan Panglima AFNEI (Allied Forces Netherlands East Indies) Letjen Sir Montagu Stopford yang pada 6 Maret 1946 mengumumkan pemberlakuan mata uang NICA di seluruh wilayah Indonesia yang telah diduduki oleh pasukan AFNEI. Kebijakan ini diprotes keras oleh pemerintah RI, karena melanggar persetujuan bahwa masing-masing pihak tidak boleh mengeluarkan mata uang baru selama belum adanya penyelesaian politik. Namun protes keras ini diabaikan oleh AFNEI. Mata uang NICA digunakan AFNEI untuk membiayai operasi-operasi militernya di Indonesia dan sekaligus mengacaukan perekonomian nasional, sehingga akan muncul krisis kepercayaan rakyat terhadap kemampuan pemerintah RI dalam mengatasi persoalan ekonomi nasional.

Karena protesnya tidak ditanggapi, maka pemerintah RI mengeluarkan kebijakan yang melarang seluruh rakyat Indonesia menggunakan mata uang NICA sebagai alat tukar. Langkah ini sangat penting karena peredaran mata uang NICA berada di luar kendali pemerintah RI, sehingga menyulitkan perbaikan ekonomi nasional.

Oleh karena AFNEI tidak mencabut pemberlakuan mata uang NICA, maka pada tanggal 26 Oktober 1946 pemerintah RI memberlakukan mata uang baru ORI (Oeang Republik Indonesia) sebagai alat tukar yang sah di seluruh wilayah RI. Sejak saat itu mata uang Jepang, mata uang Hindia Belanda dan mata uang De Javasche Bank dinyatakan tidak berlaku lagi. Dengan demikian hanya ada dua mata uang yang berlaku yaitu ORI dan NICA. Masing-masing mata uang hanya diakui oleh yang mengeluarkannya. Jadi ORI hanya diakui oleh pemerintah RI dan mata uang NICA hanya diakui oleh AFNEI. Rakyat ternyata lebih banyak memberikan dukungan kepada ORI. Hal ini mempunyai dampak politik bahwa rakyat lebih berpihak kepada pemerintah RI dari pada pemerintah sementara NICA yang hanya didukung AFNEI.

Untuk mengatur nilai tukar ORI dengan valuta asing yang ada di Indonesia, pemerintah RI pada tanggal 1 November 1946 mengubah Yayasan Pusat Bank pimpinan Margono Djojohadikusumo menjadi Bank Negara Indonesia (BNI). Beberapa bulan sebelumnya pemerintah juga telah mengubah bank pemerintah pendudukan Jepang Shomin Ginko menjadi Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI) danTyokin Kyoku menjadi Kantor Tabungan Pos (KTP) yang berubah nama pada Juni 1949 menjadi Bank tabungan Pos dan akhirnya di tahun 1950 menjadi Bank Tabungan Negara (BTN). Semua bank ini berfungsi sebagai bank umum yang dijalankan oleh pemerintah RI. Fungsi utamanya adalah menghimpun dan menyalurkan dana masyarakat serta pemberi jasa di dalam lalu lintas pembayaran.

Terbentuknya Bank Indonesia

Jauh sebelum kedatangan bangsa barat, nusantara telah menjadi pusat perdagangan internasional. Sementara di daratan Eropa muncul lembaga perbankan sederhana, seperti Bank van Leening di negeri Belanda. Sistem perbankan ini kemudian dibawa oleh bangsa barat yang mengekspansi nusantara pada waktu yang sama. VOC di Jawa pada 1746 mendirikan De Bank van Leening yang kemudian menjadi De Bank Courant en Bank van Leening pada 1752. Bank itu adalah bank pertama yang lahir di nusantara, cikal bakal dari dunia perbankan pada masa selanjutnya.

Pada 24 Januari 1828, pemerintah Hindia Belanda mendirikan bank sirkulasi dengan nama De Javasche Bank (DJB). Selama berpuluh-puluh tahun bank tersebut beroperasi dan berkembang berdasarkan suatu oktroi dari penguasa Kerajaan Belanda, hingga akhirnya diundangkan DJB Wet 1922.

Masa pendudukan Jepang telah menghentikan kegiatan DJB dan perbankan Hindia Belanda untuk sementara waktu. Kemudian masa revolusi tiba, Hindia Belanda mengalami dualisme kekuasaan, antara Republik Indonesia (RI) dan Nederlandsche Indische Civil Administrative (NICA). Perbankan pun terbagi dua, DJB dan bank-bank Belanda di wilayah NICA sedangkan "Jajasan Poesat Bank Indonesia" dan Bank Negara Indonesia di wilayah RI. Konferensi Meja Bundar (KMB) 1949 mengakhiri konflik Indonesia dan Belanda, ditetapkan kemudian DJB sebagai bank sentral bagi Republik Indonesia Serikat (RIS). Status ini terus bertahan hingga masa kembalinya RI dalam negara kesatuan. Berikutnya sebagai bangsa dan negara yang berdaulat, RI menasionalisasi bank sentralnya. Maka sejak 1 Juli 1953 berubahlah DJB menjadi Bank Indonesia, bank sentral bagi Republik Indonesia.

Banyak orang lupa, bahwa Yogyakarta selama empat tahun pernah menjadi ibukota Republik Indonesia. Tepatnya pada 4 Januari 1946 sampai 27 Desember 1949 ibukota Republik Indonesia ada di Yogyakarta.

Berpindahnya ibukota RI saat itu bukan tanpa alasan, situasi Jakarta kala itu dalam kondisi tidak aman dan roda pemerintahan RI macet total akibat adanya unsur-unsur yang saling berlawanan. Di satu pihak masih adanya pasukan Jepang yang memegang satus quo, di pihak lain adanya sekutu yang diboncengi NICA. Singkatnya, situasi Jakarta makin genting dan keselamatan para pemimpin bangsa pun terancam. Atas inisiatif HB IX, ibukota RI berpindah ke Yogyakarta. Hijrah ibukota RI itu merupakan atas nasehat dan prakarsa Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX dan dari Yogyalah persoalan politik bangsa dikoordinasikan. Semua itu bisa berhasil dengan baik berkat kepemimpinan HB IX.

Dipilihnya Yogya sebagai ibukota RI karena pandangan politik ke depan dan keberanian Sultan HB IX mengambil resiko. Sehingga dapat dikatakan HB IX dan masyarakatnya merupakan penyambung kelangsungn RI dalam menghadapi agresi militer Belanda. Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX merupakan aktor intelektualis yang memiliki multi status. Selain sebagai Raja, kepala derah, menteri pertahanan, Sultan adalah key person dan juru runding dengan Belanda, juga sebagai figur kunci birokrasi sipil di Indonesia. Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX yang aslinya bernama G.R.M Dorojatun, sejak diangkat menjadi Sultan 18 Maret 1940, menggantikan ayahnya Sri Sultan HB VIII sudah dekat dengan kalangan rakyat dan tentu saja beliau memahami aspirasi rakyat, termasuk penderitaan dan harapannya semasa penjajahan Belanda dan Jepang.

Karena perpindahan ibukota inilah maka semua uang ORI yang diterbitkan pada tahun 1946 s/d 1949 yaitu seri ORI II, III, IV dan ORI Baru tercantum kata2 Djokjakarta. Bukan lagi Djakarta seperti pada seri ORI I.

THE GLOBAL CORPORATION

The preceding 20 years have witnessed a widespread restructuring of the corporate landscape. An estimated 50.000 corporations now have operations that are primarily global in scope. Their predecessors were multinational corporations (MNCs), with sales and manufacturing branches abroad, but with all major functions, including the international branches, run from headquarters back home.
The new global corporation typically has a tight, lean headquarters staff, but scatters its other functions-research and development, accounting, procurement, and sales-wherever the people are the best and the costs lowest. This corporation seldom has an international department, because the entire corporation is international. Multinational corporation that have evolved into global corporations include Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation, Royal Dutch/Shell Group, BP Amoco PLC, Siemens AG, Nestle S.A., and Zenith Electronics Corporation, among many others.
Global corporations, in turn, are reshaping the political and social landscape. During the last 50 years, major corporations in the United States and other industrialized nations struck a social compact with their employees andcommunities, through a web of labor agreements, environmental an tax laws, charitable giving, and other obligations, voluntary or imposed. The global corporation is now mobile enough to escape these obligations and break the social compact. Companies that once competed domestically with other companies sharing the same social obligations now compete with firms halfways around te globe, where environmental laws may not exist and pay scales are a fraction of Western wages.
In the United States , for example, hundreds of corporations-from automakers to electronics manufacturers-have moved jobs from high wage U.S. facilities to low-wage plants in Mexico and other Latin American nations. In respons to this trend, policy makers in the United States have reduced corporate taxes in an effort to keep at least some bussiness operations at home. United States federal tax receipts tell part of the story: Corporations that once paid a full 30 percent of total federal taxes have seen their tax share fall to 12 percent.
Troughout much of the industrialized world, declining corporate taxes mean less money for welfare, unemployment, and other social programs thet were initially established to help economically vulnerable workers. In the future, political debates will likely focus on efforts by governments and citizens’ groups to force corporations to resume their economic and social obligations in a sense, to declare their corporate citizenship-when they no longer are geographically bound to any particular location.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BANK

The bank would be established on the principles of “Shirkat” that is a number of persons providing share capital to be jointly invested, hereafter called ‘shareholders’. The shareholders would finance enterprises, on the basis of partnership or ‘mudlarabah’ and render other services against fees or commission.
The minimum number of shareholders must be two. No maximum number can be fixed, theoretically, but for operational convenience as well as other reasons sum upper limit, varying with local conditions, is appropriate. The number of shareholders should be too great and in their best interest, should be kept to the minimum, though always more than two.
The amount of capital provided by each shareholders may be equal or mary vary. Ideally, sharevalue might be fixed (e.g. at Rp.1000.000) per share with each shareholders being allowed to secure as many shares as he wishes. The minimum and maximum limits of the subscribed capital may also be specified. Ultimately, each shareholders would become the owner of the bank, proportionately with the level of his assets in the total investment.
The distribution of the bank’s profits should be appropriate to the size of capital investment (number of shares) and, for this purpose, the total profit may be devided by the total investment in the bank to determine the percentage payable to each individual shareholder. There is, however, every justification for some formula of some formula of disproportionate distribution of profit, given that some shareholders would be more competent and willing than others to effectively promote the business and take on managerial responsibilities. But for the sake of smooth running of the bank’s business and for establishment of a meaningful accounting system, profit distribution should, in our view, be based upon the number of paid-up shares, bearing in mind (in the light of the principles of the shari’a for partnership) that if the bank goes into loss in any year, no shareholders can escape his liability, and must share the loss, in proportion to the size of his shares.
Consent for the acquisition of additional capital (either on credit or on the basis of mudlarabah), to promote and expand the bank’s business would be binding upon every partner to the bank. The bank would also be authorized advance loans and offer monetary investment to individuals or to organizations. It would of course, have the right to acqiure the services of administrative, excecutive and clerical staff and the purchase and hire transport, buildings and other requisites for it use. For such expenditure and for any other expenditure necessary to operate its business on sound lines, the bank would be allowed to draw upon its capital. Conversely, every partner as a private individual would be allowed to participate in any other business or enterprise and invest money or accept loans in partnership or on the basis of mudlarabah. His personal enterprises, as a private individual, would have nothing to do with the business of the bank.
All major decisions regarding overall operation of the bank would be made with the mutual understanding of the partners. If, however, the number of partners is very large, power to take decisions on various matters (which should be determined beforehand) would be delegated to a council of Representatives. Day-to-day decisions on routine business matters would be entrusted to salaried managers whose appointment and removal would rest in the hands of the partners or the Council of Representatives.
Banking is a continuous activity which cannot be reckoned to have anded at anyone particular moment. In view of this, it is in the partner’s interest to adopt an appropriate method for calculating profit and loss-the method should suit the organization as well as the partners. It would be advisable to have the account of the bank audited annually and a statement of profits and losses prepared. After calculating overall balance, the share of individual partners should be worked out. Profit should be paid out. In case of loss, the individual partner should be duly notified that his capital has been debited by the amount of his share of the loss and has accordingly decreased. The partnership agreement should then be renewed and the business continued for the next year. The account of every financial year should be separately recorded and dividends already distributed non-recoverable, for making good losses incurred during the current year, not should the profit earned be edjusted against the losses suffered. In the event of loss, any partner would, of course, have the right to make up the deficiency in his capital investment by fresh deposits.
Every partner should have the right to withdraw from the partnership at any time. As soon as the bank receives notice of withdrawal, efforts should be made to complete the amount of the bank’s collective business so that the partner’s share-capital is returned along with the profit he has earned. If it is necessary to some time for the finalization of the account say till the end of the running quarter of the year this should be done. It can bo provided for in the partnership agreement that a partner may withdraw from partnership only at the end of the financial yaer or the time of quarterly settlement of accounts. After the withdraw of a partner or partners, the partnership will continue so far as the other partners are concerned. In the event of a partner’s death the partnership will cease to exist as far as that partner is concerned and after preparing the accounts on the lines mentioned, his share capital plus his profit or minus his loss, must be returned to his legal heirs or to the persons nominated in the will of the deceased. He heir or heirs may be admitted to partnership if he or they so desire and provided that the other partners do not object to their admission.
As the bank would authorized to receive and advance loans, the financial liability of a partner should not be limited to the extent of his share-capital, but should in priciple be unlimited. As no theoritical limit can be imposed on the bank in the matter of receiving and advancing loans, it follows that the financial obligations of each partner will be unlimited. If the bank suffers losses such that its capital is insufficient to pay its liabilities, the deficiency must be met by the partners from their personal assets. However, if a partner has undertaken some financial responsibilities in a private capacity, other partners will not be bound to share them, nor will the bank be sheld responsible for them in any way.